Agricultural Practices

All living organisms require food to obtain energy for performing vital functions such as digestion, respiration, and excretion. While plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, animals, including humans, rely on plants or other animals for their nutrition.

Given the large population in our country, producing food on a massive scale is essential. This necessitates systematic practices.

Historically, around 10,000 B.C.E., people were nomadic, moving from place to place in groups in search of food and shelter. They consumed raw plants and hunted animals. Over time, they learned to cultivate land to grow crops like rice, wheat, and other food plants, leading to the development of agriculture.

When plants of the same variety are cultivated and grown on a large area in a specific location, it is termed a crop. For instance, a wheat crop means only wheat plants are grown in a particular field.

Crops encompass various types, such as cereals, vegetables, and fruits. These are classified based on the season in which they are grown.

India's vast geography results in diverse climatic conditions, including temperature, humidity, and rainfall, varying significantly across regions. This diversity allows for a wide variety of crops.

Based on the growing season, crops in India are broadly categorised into two main patterns:

• Kharif Crops: These crops are planted during the rainy season, which typically occurs from June to September in India. Examples include paddy (rice), maize, soybean, groundnut, and cotton.

  It's important to note that paddy requires significant water, hence it is grown during the rainy season and cannot be cultivated in winter.

• Rabi Crops: These crops are grown during the winter season, generally from October to March. Common examples are wheat, gram (chickpea), pea, mustard, and linseed.

Apart from these major categories, certain pulses and vegetables are also grown during the summer months in various parts of the country.

Basic Practices Of Crop Production

Growing crops involves a sequence of activities performed by farmers over a period. These activities are similar to those undertaken by a gardener. These systematic tasks related to crop cultivation are known as agricultural practices.

The key agricultural practices are:

1. Preparation of soil
2. Sowing
3. Adding manure and fertilisers
4. Irrigation
5. Protecting from weeds
6. Harvesting
7. Storage

Preparation Of Soil

The initial and fundamental step before planting a crop is preparing the soil. A crucial aspect of this preparation is turning the soil and loosening it. This process allows plant roots to grow deeper into the ground.

Loose soil facilitates easy breathing for plant roots, even when they extend deeply. This is because loosened soil contains more air spaces.

Loosening the soil also promotes the growth of beneficial organisms like earthworms and microbes that live in the soil. These organisms are considered "friends of the farmer" as they further turn and loosen the soil and enrich it with humus (decomposed organic matter).

Soil contains essential components for plant growth, including minerals, water, air, and living organisms. When plants and animals die, they decompose in the soil due to microorganisms. This decomposition releases valuable nutrients back into the soil, making them available for absorption by plants.

Only the top few centimetres of soil are typically rich in nutrients and support plant growth. Turning and loosening the soil brings this nutrient-rich layer to the surface, allowing plants to utilise these essential nutrients.

The process of loosening and turning the soil is called tilling or ploughing. Traditionally, this is done using a tool called a plough.

Ploughs are historically made of wood or, more recently, iron. If the soil is excessively dry, it may require watering before ploughing to make the process easier.

After ploughing, the field may contain large lumps of soil known as crumbs. It is necessary to break these crumbs for better soil texture.

Levelling the ploughed field using a leveller is also important. This helps in uniform sowing and efficient irrigation.

Sometimes, organic manure is mixed into the soil before tilling to ensure it gets properly incorporated. The soil might also be moistened before sowing.

Agricultural Implements

Various tools are used to break soil clumps and prepare the soil for better yield before sowing. The primary tools for this purpose are the plough, hoe, and cultivator.

• Plough: Used since ancient times for tilling soil, adding fertilisers, removing weeds, and turning the soil. It is typically made of wood or iron and pulled by animals like bulls, horses, or camels. The plough has a strong triangular iron strip called the ploughshare and a long wooden/iron log called the ploughshaft. One end of the shaft has a handle, while the other is attached to a beam placed on the animals' necks. A single pair of bulls and a person can operate it. Modern agriculture increasingly uses iron ploughs.
• Hoe: A simple tool primarily used for removing weeds and loosening the soil. It consists of a long rod (wood or iron) with a strong, broad, bent iron plate fixed at one end, acting like a blade. It is pulled by animals.
• Cultivator: Nowadays, ploughing is often done using a tractor-driven cultivator. This modern implement significantly saves both labour and time.

Sowing

Sowing, the process of placing seeds in the soil, is a critical step in crop production.

Selection Of Seeds

Before sowing, farmers need to choose good quality, clean, and healthy seeds of a suitable variety. Farmers generally prefer seeds that are expected to yield a high output.

A simple method to test seed quality involves putting seeds in water. Damaged seeds become hollow and lighter, causing them to float on the surface, while healthy seeds sink. This method helps in separating good seeds from damaged ones.

Traditional Tool

Historically, seeds were sown using a tool shaped like a funnel. Seeds were poured into the funnel and passed down through pipes with sharp ends, which pierced the soil to place the seeds.

Seed Drill

The seed drill is a modern implement, often pulled by a tractor, used for sowing. It ensures that seeds are sown uniformly at correct depths and distances. It also helps cover the seeds with soil after sowing, which protects them from being eaten by birds. Using a seed drill is more efficient as it saves both time and labour.

For certain plants, like paddy, seeds are initially grown in a nursery. When these grow into young plants called seedlings, they are then manually transplanted into the main field. Some forest and flowering plants are also grown this way.

Maintaining appropriate distance between seeds or seedlings during sowing is vital. This prevents overcrowding of plants, ensuring they receive sufficient sunlight, water, and nutrients from the soil. Sometimes, removing a few plants might be necessary to avoid overcrowding and allow healthier growth of the remaining plants.

Adding Manure And Fertilisers

Substances added to the soil to provide essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilisers.

Soil naturally supplies mineral nutrients to crop plants, which are crucial for their growth. If farmers continuously grow crops in the same field without leaving it empty (fallow), the soil's nutrient levels get depleted over time.

To restore the soil's nutrient content, farmers add manure to the fields. This process is termed manuring. Insufficient or improper manuring can result in weak plant growth.

Manure is an organic substance. It is produced from the decomposition of plant and animal waste. Farmers collect plant and animal waste (like cattle dung) in open pits and allow it to decompose. Microorganisms facilitate this decomposition process. The resulting decomposed matter is used as organic manure.

Fertilisers, in contrast, are chemical substances. They are specifically rich in one or more particular nutrients. Unlike manure, fertilisers are manufactured in factories.

Examples of common fertilisers include urea, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, and NPK (containing Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium).

Fertilisers have been effective in helping farmers achieve higher yields of crops like wheat, paddy, and maize. However, their excessive use can lead to a decrease in soil fertility over the long term and also contribute to water pollution.

To maintain soil fertility and avoid the negative effects of excessive fertiliser use, farmers are encouraged to use organic manure as a substitute or leave the field uncultivated (fallow) for a season between crops.

Using manure has several benefits: it improves the water-holding capacity and texture of the soil, makes the soil porous for better gas exchange, increases the population of beneficial soil microbes, and effectively replenishes soil nutrients.

Another way to enrich the soil with nutrients is crop rotation. This involves growing different types of crops alternately in the same field. Historically, farmers in northern India practised growing legumes (like gram or pea) as animal fodder in one season, followed by wheat in the next. Leguminous plants have Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules, which can fix atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form in the soil, thus replenishing nitrogen levels. Farmers are encouraged to continue adopting this practice.

Here are the key differences between fertilisers and manure:

Feature	Fertiliser	Manure
Nature	Man-made inorganic salt	Natural organic substance
Production	Prepared in factories	Prepared in fields or pits through decomposition
Humus content	Does not provide humus to the soil	Provides a lot of humus to the soil
Nutrient richness	Very rich in specific plant nutrients (e.g., N, P, K)	Relatively less rich in plant nutrients, but provides comprehensive nutrients

Irrigation

Water is fundamental for the survival of all living organisms. For plants, water is essential for proper growth and development. Plant roots absorb water from the soil, along with dissolved minerals and fertilisers. Plants themselves consist of approximately 90% water.

Water plays several vital roles: it is necessary for the germination of seeds (which cannot occur in dry conditions), it transports nutrients dissolved in water to all parts of the plant, and it protects crops from extreme temperature conditions like frost and hot air currents.

To ensure healthy crop growth by maintaining adequate moisture in the soil, fields need to be supplied with water at regular intervals. This supply of water to crops at regular intervals is called irrigation.

The timing and frequency of irrigation depend on several factors: the type of crop, the type of soil, and the prevailing season. During summer, plants require watering more frequently. This is likely due to increased evaporation rates of water from the soil and the leaves (transpiration).

Common sources of water for irrigation include wells, tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams, and canals.

Traditional Methods Of Irrigation

In older methods, water from sources like wells, lakes, and canals is lifted using different techniques in various regions to supply the fields. These methods often rely on cattle or human labour.

Traditional methods are generally cheaper but less efficient in terms of water usage compared to modern systems.

Examples of traditional irrigation methods include:

1. Moat (Pulley-system)
2. Chain pump
3. Dhekli
4. Rahat (Lever system)

Mechanical pumps are frequently used nowadays for lifting water. These pumps can be powered by diesel, biogas, electricity, or solar energy.

Modern Methods Of Irrigation

Modern irrigation techniques are designed to use water more economically and efficiently. The main modern methods are:

1. Sprinkler System: This method is particularly suitable for uneven land or areas where water is not abundantly available. It involves setting up perpendicular pipes with rotating nozzles connected at intervals to a main pipeline. When water flows through the main pipe under pressure (generated by a pump), it escapes through the nozzles and is sprayed over the crop, resembling rain. It is highly effective for lawns, coffee plantations, and various other crops.
2. Drip System: Considered one of the best techniques, especially in regions with scarce water. In this system, water is delivered drop by drop directly near the roots of the plants. This minimises water wastage significantly. It is ideal for watering fruit plants, gardens, and trees.

Protection From Weeds

Often, in a cultivated field, other undesirable plants grow naturally alongside the main crop. These unwanted plants are called weeds.

The process of removing these weeds is called weeding. Weeding is crucial because weeds compete with the crop plants for essential resources such as water, nutrients, space, and sunlight. This competition negatively impacts the growth and yield of the crop. Additionally, some weeds can interfere with harvesting or may even be poisonous to humans and animals.

Farmers employ various methods to remove weeds and control their growth:

• Tilling: Ploughing the field before sowing helps uproot and kill many weeds. These weeds then dry up and can get mixed into the soil.
• Manual Removal: Physically removing weeds by pulling them out from the roots or cutting them close to the ground periodically is a common method. This is often done using a small hand tool like a khurpi. Sometimes, a seed drill might also be used for uprooting weeds.
• Using Weedicides: Weeds can also be controlled using specific chemicals known as weedicides (e.g., 2,4-D). These chemicals are sprayed in the fields to kill only the weeds without harming the main crop. Weedicides are diluted with water to the appropriate concentration before spraying with a sprayer.

It is important to spray weedicides during the vegetative growth phase of weeds, before they produce flowers and seeds, as this is the most effective time.

Farmers must exercise caution when using weedicides because these chemicals can potentially affect their health. They should cover their nose and mouth with a cloth while spraying to avoid inhalation.

Harvesting

Harvesting is a significant stage in farming, involving the cutting and gathering of the crop after it has fully matured. Crops are either pulled out from the ground or cut near the base.

Cereal crops typically take about 3 to 4 months to mature and be ready for harvest.

Harvesting can be done manually using a sickle or by machines called harvesters.

After harvesting, the process of separating the grain seeds from the dry, leafy part (chaff) is called threshing. This is done using a machine called a thresher.

In modern farming, a single machine called a combine is often used. A combine performs both harvesting (cutting the crop) and threshing (separating grain from chaff) simultaneously.

Farmers with small landholdings may separate grain and chaff using winnowing, a method involving blowing air to separate lighter chaff from heavier grains.

Sometimes, after harvesting, crop stalks (stubble) are left in the field. Burning this stubble, a common practice by some farmers, causes air pollution and can pose a fire risk to nearby fields.

Harvest Festivals

The harvest season, occurring after months of hard work, is a time of great joy and celebration for farmers. Seeing the matured, golden crops fills them with satisfaction and a sense of achievement. This period allows for relaxation and enjoyment.

Harvest festivals are celebrated with enthusiasm across different parts of India. Examples of special festivals associated with the harvest season include Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya, and Bihu.

Storage

Proper storage of harvested grains is an essential task, particularly if they need to be kept for extended periods. Stored grains must be protected from various threats like excessive moisture, insects, rats, and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi).

Freshly harvested grains usually contain more moisture. Storing them without adequate drying can lead to spoilage or attack by pests and microbes, making them unusable or unable to germinate.

Therefore, before storage, grains are thoroughly dried in the sun to reduce their moisture content. This crucial step helps prevent damage from insect pests, bacteria, and fungi.

Farmers typically store grains in jute bags or metallic bins at home.

For large-scale storage, grains are stored in specialised structures called silos or in large warehouses known as granaries. These facilities are designed to protect grains from pests like rats and insects.

Dried neem leaves are commonly used for storing food grains safely at home, as they act as a natural repellent against insects.

For storing large quantities of grains in big godowns, specific chemical treatments are employed to ensure effective protection against pests and microorganisms.

Food From Animals

In addition to crops from plants, we also obtain food from animals. Many people, especially those living in coastal areas, rely on fish as a significant part of their diet. Fish is considered healthy and is a source of cod liver oil, which is rich in vitamin D.

Similar to crop production, rearing animals at home or on farms to obtain food requires providing them with proper food, shelter, and care. When these practices are carried out on a large scale for food or other products, it is called animal husbandry.

Understanding that both plants and animals serve as sources of food highlights the different facets of providing sustenance to a large population.

(Activity 1.3 in the textbook prompts the learner to list different food items and their animal sources, illustrating the variety of food we obtain from animals.)

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